Journal Of Cultural Analysis and Social Change
Published in Volume 10 Issue 1: 19 Jun 2025
Wallace Ramos de Figueiredo (Nino Rhamos)
https://doi.org/10.20897/jcasc/16522
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Abstract
This article examines the portrayal of Hua Mulan in the 2020 film adaptations produced in the USA and China through the lens of Edward Said's Orientalism, assessing the cultural and political implications of these representations. The study begins with a historical overview of Hua Mulan's adaptations, focusing on how the 2020 films reflect cultural stereotypes, gender dynamics, and the tension between individualistic and collective values. By comparing these productions, it highlights the perpetuation of Western stereotypes about Asian cultures and contrasts them with China's narrative strategies. Furthermore, the article emphasizes the importance of analyzing cultural representations in cinema as a tool for understanding broader political and social dynamics. It argues that Said’s framework remains relevant for examining how the “Other” is depicted in contemporary films, and proposes new insights into the political power of cinema in shaping public perceptions. This discussion contributes to the existing debates on Orientalism, offering a nuanced critique of cultural representation and its role in reinforcing or challenging stereotypes.
Introduction
This article conducts a comparative exploration of Hua Mulan's portrayal in two 2020 films: Disney's Mulan and Rhapsody Pictures’ Matchless Mulan (无双花木兰 – Wúshuāng Huā Mùlán). By analyzing these adaptations through the lens of Edward Said's Orientalism, the study investigates how cultural and political nuances manifest in their narratives, visual styles, and character development, with particular focus on gender roles and the tension between collective and individual identity. These representations reflect the influence of the films' production origins, offering insights into cross-cultural tensions in cinematic portrayals.
Hua Mulan is a historical figure whose adaptations have evolved over time, often reflecting broader cultural and political dynamics. The comparison of these recent films, produced in distinct cultural contexts, reveals how stereotypes and ideological frameworks shape representations of Asian cultures in global cinema. This study emphasizes the relevance of Said’s Orientalism for analyzing such portrayals, particularly as they relate to ongoing debates about identity, gender, and power.
Utilizing a comparative methodology, this research is organized into several sections. It begins with an overview of Hua Mulan’s historical background, explores film adaptations from the 1920s to 2020, and culminates in an analysis of the 2020 films within Said's framework. By highlighting the intersection of cultural context and cinematic narrative, the article underscores the importance of cross-cultural perspectives in shaping interpretations of historical figures in contemporary film.
Literature review
Over the years, numerous studies have examined the Asian context through the lens of Orientalism, highlighting how cinematic representations both reflect and challenge stereotypes. Park and Wilkins (2005) underscore the reductive portrayal of Asians in Western media, often depicted as villains or submissive characters, which contributes to the exoticization seen in films like Charlie's Angels and Kill Bill. Vukovich (2012) discusses the concept of “Sinological-orientalism,” which reflects a vision of China as inevitably conforming to Western cultural norms.
The static and monolithic portrayal of Chinese culture, ignoring its complexities and transformations, is a key theme explored by Zhang (2019). Zhao (2023) further examines the influence of post-colonialism on Chinese cinema, where exotic cultural elements are used to construct an Oriental image centered on Western perspectives. Yepez (2023) introduces the concept of “Ornamentalism,” describing how costumes in films transform Asian women into ornamental hybrids, stripping away their humanity and agency.
In the realm of digital media, Araujo and Albuquerque (2024) analyze how Netflix's algorithm reinforces stereotypical views of China in Brazil, focusing on the imperial past and martial arts while neglecting contemporary transformations. Sotomayor (2021) provides a comprehensive examination of Mulan adaptations, exploring how gender norms and cross-dressing challenge societal conventions and highlighting tensions between historical accuracy and authenticity in these adaptations. Collectively, these works provide a critical foundation for understanding how Orientalism shapes the portrayal of Hua Mulan in cinema, emphasizing the cultural and political complexities involved.
Methodology
This research was conducted using a qualitative
approach to analyze the selected works. The 2020 films Mulan by Disney and Matchless
Mulan by Rhapsody Pictures were accessed through YouTube. This platform
enabled full viewing of the productions for detailed analysis. It is important
to note that the availability of content on YouTube may be intermittent due to
channel policies and platform rule changes, which can affect the sustainability
of online content over time.
Sources of academic articles and other theoretical
support were accessed via platforms such as Google Scholar, JSTOR, and SciELO.
Keywords such as “Hua Mulan,” “Orientalism,” “cultural representation,” “2020
films,” “Chinese cinema,” and “Chinese cinema + Orientalism” were used to
retrieve relevant information. Materials were selected based on their relevance
to the critical focus on cultural representations, with an emphasis on gender
issues and narrative constructions related to cultural aspects.
The primary analysis of this research utilized Edward
Said's Orientalism as the main theoretical reference, presenting approaches
that illustrate narrative aspects of the works, including gender dynamics and
specific ways of representing cultural, visual, and character structuring
elements. Dialogues and specific scenes were highlighted to demonstrate how
these elements were addressed.
Analysis of Chosen Films: Historical and Cultural Perspectives
Before discussing the selected films, it is
essential to provide a brief context for Hua Mulan's story. Over the years,
Mulan has been portrayed in various interpretations, each reflecting the
political and cultural aspects of its time. The story dates back to the 6th
century and has influenced literature, theater, music, and cinema
A Historical Overview of Hua Mulan in Film
From the 1920s to the 1930s, Mulan was featured
in adaptations such as Mulan Joins the Army, produced by Tianyi Film
Company and China Sun Motion Picture Company
Disney's adaptations in the 1990s and 2000s
emphasized female independence
Analysis of “Matchless Mulan”: Identity, Collectivism, and Purpose
The Chinese version of Hua Mulan, starring 胡雪儿 (Xue'er
Hu), is set during a threat from the Rouran army to the Chinese border
during the Northern Wei Dynasty. Initially, the character's dilemma is
portrayed as a family issue, as she decides to take on her elderly father's
military duties in the army by disguising herself as a man.
The first theme is filial love, which motivates
the character's decision, reflecting Confucian traditions. This is evident in
several moments throughout the film. For example, the character states that she
is not there to kill, but to fight in her father's name. The narrative builds
on this motivation, portraying her reluctance to take human lives and framing
combat as a military obligation far removed from her personal reasons.
The film
depicts military relationships akin to a family dynamic, uniting people not
only through blood ties but also through bonds of complicity formed toward a
common goal, where hierarchical relationships do not undermine bonds of
complicity. These relationships, initially seen as friendships within the
military, expand as the narrative unfolds, symbolizing the idea of a collective
family.
Flora
Botton Beja
The director dedicates the film to the Chinese
People's Liberation Army, emphasizing the connection between the family drama
and broader issues such as nationalism. Mulan’s journey illustrates the
expansion of the family concept to encompass the larger community, represented
by the state. She expresses this notion by revealing her gender, claiming to
fight in her father's name, for her family's safety, and to end the war,
promoting collective well-being and national prosperity.
The plot reveals Mulan's transition from a
devoted daughter to a defender of the country, emphasizing collectivism. This
journey begins with personal issues, particularly her relationship with her
parents, and extends to form family ties within the army, depicted through
interactions among the characters. The film culminates in the idea that the
country functions as a large family, where national issues are addressed
collectively to resolve familial concerns. In this sense, family relationships
transcend blood ties and become an extension of society and the state.
Camaraderie among the characters is evident in
scenes of shared suffering, such as when a prisoner's brothers die, leaving
everyone profoundly affected. This connection marks a pivotal moment in the
film, emphasizing unity and collectivism over individualism, as seen in scenes
where everyone washes their clothes together.
On the other hand, gender issues are not the
primary focus of the narrative. The protagonist, who disguises herself as a
man, is portrayed simply by tying her hair to appear masculine. At certain
points, it remains unclear whether she has revealed her true identity, as she
continues to be referred to with masculine pronouns until the moment of her
revelation. This revelation, however, is not treated with the same intensity as
in Western versions. Instead, Mulan's moral values and her commitment to her country
and family overshadow potential gender-related dilemmas, offering a distinct
perspective on the story.
Analysis of Disney’s “Mulan”: Gender, Identity, and Cultural Representation
Disney’s
version of Mulan, released in 2020, takes a different narrative approach from
the Chinese version, Matchless Mulan, focusing on themes of identity,
gender, and cultural representation. While the Chinese version is in Mandarin,
Disney’s version is entirely in English, targeting an
international audience. The narrative begins by emphasizing Mulan’s childhood
and her martial skills. It introduces gender roles through dialogues about
marriage, suggesting a more “liberal” perspective on gender roles, as
represented by Mulan’s father, in contrast to the conservatism often associated
with Chinese culture.
The
reference to the Silk Road and scenes filmed in Xinjiang allude to the Belt and
Road Initiative, attempting to connect the film to contemporary China, despite
controversies involving human rights violations in the region. Disney’s version
includes a character with magical abilities, delving into the concept of 气 (qì, also romanized as “chi”)[1]
as a mystical force. This portrayal perpetuates common stereotypes found in
martial arts films, where Asian cultures are often framed as inherently
mystical and exotic.
A similar
dynamic is evident in martial arts films produced in the United States during
the 1980s and 1990s, such as Bloodsport (1988) and Kickboxer
(1989), both starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. These films popularized an
aesthetic of choreographed combat and mystical elements, reinforcing the notion
of the “exotic Orient.” As Chris Hamm
Visually,
the version produced in the United States stands out for its use of vibrant
colors and exaggerated makeup, contrasting with the comparatively more
realistic costumes of the Chinese version. The colors and makeup are employed
to depict various Chinese ethnicities allegorically, incorporating references
to cultural figures such as Japanese geishas. While the Chinese version
emphasizes family and collectivity, Disney emphasizes Mulan’s gender conflicts
and individualism, particularly by highlighting her martial skills within a
traditionally masculine framework.
The
relationship between Mulan and the sorceress, who is initially an antagonist
but later becomes supportive, exemplifies how the version produced in the
United States addresses gender issues more intensely than the Chinese version.
Disney’s approach narrows the theme of filial love, focusing primarily on
affection within the nuclear family and without substantially extending to
relationships among soldiers or the state. In contrast, the Chinese version
portrays the state as an extension of the family, deserving the same care and
respect.
The
culmination of this perspective occurs when Mulan observes the words 忠勇真 (zhōng yǒng zhēn, meaning loyalty, courage, and truth). While
each word carries its own meaning, the ideogram 真 (zhēn, meaning
“truth”) is placed at the center, symbolizing Mulan’s focus on the sword and her
reflection. This moment suggests that truth is fundamental for her to embrace
and manifest her feminine strength.
Thus, Disney’s Mulan diverges significantly from the Chinese version by placing strong emphasis on the challenges faced by the character as a woman in society and her struggle against traditional gender expectations. Individuality is emphasized as a way to address dilemmas surrounding the freedom to express one’s gender. Filial love, on the other hand, is portrayed narrowly as affection between parents and children without extending significantly to soldiers or the nation. While referencing key aspects of Mulan’s traditional story, such as her connection to her family and her country, Disney’s version prioritizes gender-related issues as the central conflict driving the narrative. Ultimately, the story revolves around Mulan’s struggle to accept her true identity, a challenge reflected in both her family environment, where she faces societal expectations, and the military, where she asserts her individuality.
Orientalism and Representations of Non-Western Cultures
Edward W.
Said’s book Orientalism
Although
the book’s focus is often on the “Middle East,” Said does not limit Orientalism
to that area. He includes references to cultures and practices from countries
such as India, China, and Japan, applying his analyses to the entire East
In
cinematographic terms, China had significant film production at the beginning
of the 20th century, illustrating the presence of Western technology in a
developing non-Western world. According to Chen Yu’s article “Beyond
'Exoticism': Strategies for Constructing the Images of China in Western Movies”
This section
illustrates how Asian representations in the Hua Mulan films reflect elements
of Orientalism discussed by Said. The narratives, visual elements,
performances, and character constructions in the two films contribute to the
construction of Western perceptions of the East, particularly of China.
The Representation of China in “Mulan” Through Orientalism
When
analyzing films, it is important to recognize that fictional film productions
and documentaries do not present an absolute and neutral reality. They offer a
subjective perspective on past events, organized through editing techniques to
enhance understanding and assimilation. As Dai Vaughan stated in the epigraph
of a writing by Paul Henley, “A film is about something, and reality is not”
Thus, the
first step is to consider that nothing prevents a film, or any other cultural
production, from exercising a certain interpretive freedom or even adapting the
story based on a particular interpretation of the central elements that
characterize the plot. This reinterpretation is inevitable; therefore, the
intention here is not to judge the adapted elements as if they were distorting
the true story of Hua Mulan.
Adaptations
are also present in Chinese versions. The aim is to analyze these adaptations
to understand them in the light of Said's Orientalism. However, as Vukovich
“Orientalism stands forth and away from the
Orient: that Orientalism makes sense at all depends more on the West than on
the Orient, and this sense is directly indebted to various Western techniques
of representation that make the Orient visible, clear, "there" in
discourse about it. And these representations rely upon institutions,
traditions, conventions, agreed-upon codes of understanding for their effects,
not upon a distant and amorphous Orient.”
This
perspective is echoed by Zhang
Another
important aspect to consider is the film as a marketable commodity, developed
over decades and encompassing not only economic but also political interests.
Alfred Gell
In this
sense, art objects must be understood within the relational context of any
social group in which they circulate. Such objects carry agency, closely
associated with those who possess them. This argument aligns with Dawsey's
reflections in the article Tecidos de fragmentos, migrações entre
antropologia e cinema
From the
moment a certain representation of the East is embedded in an object (the film)
that is distributed to various locations, it becomes essential to study not
only the individual components of this object—such as actors, costumes, and
dialogues—but also how it interacts within its relational context.
When
analyzing cinema in general, and particularly films that retell stories
traditionally set in China, language plays a crucial role. The Disney version
being spoken in English and the Chinese version in Mandarin reflect the
cultural differences and target audiences of each production. While subtitles
enable broader access, audience identification is more intense when the native
language is used. Araujo and Albuquerque
The
intention behind using the English language goes beyond a purely marketing
objective. This is particularly evident given that the film was not only
produced for the United States market but also released on streaming platforms
in numerous countries where English is not the official language. English,
therefore, even if agreed upon as a lingua franca, cannot be understood as
politically neutral. While such conventions facilitate the internationalization
of content, they also provide a more comfortable and accessible experience for
native English speakers.
The
differences between the films, therefore, signify adaptations influenced by the
varying interests of their time and producers. Examining productions that use
the same story as a foundation but are recreated in different countries, such
as China and the United States, reveals that interpretations are undoubtedly
shaped by each culture's perspective—on themselves (in the Chinese context) and
on the Eastern Other (in the United States context). However, understanding
history within the culture itself is less problematic compared to the
interpretation made by those in a dominant position of power, as described by
Said’s concept of Orientalism.
Some
elements in the film are retained to depict the story of Hua Mulan, but the
manner in which each is portrayed reflects their respective contexts. In both
productions, the main character, Hua Mulan, maintains key elements of the story
as it is traditionally told in China. She assumes a male identity to join the
army, driven by a family matter. In this sense, both characters emphasize the
importance of filial love, as Mulan takes on her father's military duties.
The
antagonist character is constructed similarly in both productions, with crude
characteristics and a consistent display of insensitivity towards Mulan's
country. Additionally, both productions incorporate elements of magic, which
are associated with the antagonistic side and represented by a female character.
In relation
to potential similarities and subsequent suitability for the Chinese
interpretation of Hua Mulan, it is intriguing to examine the passage where
Edward W. Said
Said
further notes that Lawrence’s narrative holds a certain authority in the East,
where he portrays himself as an “unmediated expert” and a powerful presence,
temporarily embodying the East. However, the events ultimately become confined
to Lawrence’s personal experiences, framed as representative of the entire
region.
“(...) style is not only the power to
symbolize such enormous generalities as Asia, the Orient, or the Arabs; it is
also a form of displacement and incorporation by which one voice becomes a
whole history, and – for the white Westerner, as reader or writer – the only
kind of Orient it is possible to know.”
This
perspective invites us to reflect on the respect given to certain prominent
elements of the story in films like Mulan. The use of Asian or Chinese actors
famous in the West, as seen in the Disney production, does not necessarily
guarantee an accurate portrayal of the story’s underlying cultural details.
Similarly, examining China from a specific lens can lead to an oversimplified
narrative about the country as a whole. Being a widely commercialized work, the
film imposes this narrative as the sole representation.
The lack of
respect for elements such as filial love, as portrayed in the Chinese
interpretation, the excessive focus on gender conflict from a Western
perspective, and the disregard for the significance Mulan places on her country
(replaced in the United States version by the emperor’s role) are all examples
of the Orientalism imposed on the historical narrative.
Regarding
the political dimension underlying the plot’s conflicts, both films emphasize
the protagonist’s actions as a response to the need to defend the country’s
borders against an external threat. However, the Chinese version delves deeper
into the political organization of the time, specifically referencing the Wei
kingdom’s government. In contrast, Disney’s version chooses to mention a
central government in China, addressing an “unnamed” empire. While the Disney
version references the Silk Road, it suggests connections to contemporary
history and reinforces the idea of “the East” as a place of trade and cultural
exchange.
The dilemma
surrounding Mulan’s gender is present in both films, albeit with different
approaches. The Disney version emphasizes this issue more prominently, with
dialogues and scenes challenging traditional female roles. The Chinese version,
while addressing this theme, adopts a more collective perspective, framing
Mulan’s struggle in the context of the war rather than an individual dilemma.
This gives the impression that Mulan’s entry into the army is a practical
solution to the larger problem of defending the Wei kingdom, motivated by
filial piety.
Thus, even
though the approach seems similar in both cases, the reading differs
significantly. Disney’s version emphasizes a gender dispute between males and
females, starting with Mulan’s relationship with her father, the family’s
expectations for her to conform to traditional gender roles in the village, the
sexist interactions among men in the army, and Mulan’s personal struggle to
reveal her true identity. Interestingly, the antagonist begins to show sympathy
towards Mulan, recognizing their shared experiences as women and seeing her as
a potential ally.
The reading
on this topic, therefore, aligns with gender debates prominent in Western
countries. It assumes a responsibility to “civilize” countries considered
“exotic,” where such issues may not be addressed in their own way. To achieve
this, the film relies on an exotic premise that Asian women lack the capacity
to exercise agency, as if this ability only existed in the West. Andrea Yepez
The main
film productions in China at the beginning of the 20th century already featured
female protagonists in the majority, including the initial versions of Hua
Mulan. Hilary Sotomayor
The issue
at hand is the prevailing interpretation of the topic, rather than whether the
topic is addressed or not. The difference between the two readings primarily
lies in two worldviews: an individualistic perspective, which I refer to as
liberal narratives, and a collectivist perspective, described by Sotomayor
This
substitution of the Chinese interpretation of the character's gender
predicament with a Westernized interpretation aligns with Said's argument
regarding the outcome of Lawrence's writings:
“The effect of this style is that it brings
Asia tantalizingly close to the West, but only for a brief moment. We are left
at the end with a sense of the pathetic distance still separating
"us" from an Orient destined to bear its foreignness as a mark of its
permanent estrangement from the West.”
Two other important aspects that differentiate
the narratives are the representation of filial piety and the construction of
family relationships in the films. Analyzing these performances requires
considering the insights of Richard Schechner
“Performance is
a broad spectrum of forms of entertainment, arts, rituals, politics, economics,
and person-to-person interactions. Anything and everything can be studied 'as'
performance” (translation by the author).
Rubens Alves da Silva
“(…) analyzing narrative events, it is
necessary to consider the context in which they are presented and pay attention
to the resources used by the narrator to attract the audience’s attention and
signal the beginning of the performance.” (translation by the author).
In the
Disney film, family dynamics align with Western family values, influenced by
principles common in Judeo-Christian societies. While similar elements are
portrayed in the Chinese version, specific details highlight distinct
differences, reflecting the Chinese interpretation of filial piety — a core
aspect of Hua Mulan’s story.
In the
United States version, Mulan is depicted as having a hidden power called “chi.”
This power sparks a debate between her parents, who hold opposing views about
its use. Her father begins by asking his ancestors if they could conceal
Mulan’s “chi,” explaining that traditionally, only men are allowed to
manifest it. He warns that if she uses it, it will bring shame and dishonor.
Despite this, he initially seems to approve of her using the power, while her
mother defends patriarchal traditions that subordinate women. “Chi,” at
this stage, is associated with masculinity. Her mother even warns that
villagers might accuse her of being a witch.
Although
Mulan’s father seems to support her using this power, he eventually aligns with
his wife’s views, reaffirming that only men can wield “chi” and emphasizing
that Mulan’s duty is to bring honor to the family. This interpretation of “chi”
as a masculine concept reflects a Westernized perspective on family dynamics in
ancient China. It arises from superficial parallels with challenges faced by
men and women in historical Western societies.
An
emblematic scene occurs during a family dinner, where Mulan’s father declares
his obligation to go to war. As a former war hero, he insists it is his duty to
fight, while Mulan’s mother pleads with him not to go. When Mulan questions his
ability to fight, he asserts his authority by striking the table and declaring,
“I am your father. I must bring honor to the family on the battlefield.” He
then shouts, “You are the daughter. Put yourself in your place,” before leaving
the room.
This
portrayal of a woman unable to assume a man’s position, using a power reserved
for men, and facing accusations of witchcraft, resonates with gender dilemmas
reminiscent of the Inquisition period in medieval Western societies. A similar
dynamic can be observed in the Salem witch trials, where women who challenged
social norms were accused of sorcery. This association is likely to be absorbed
by Western feminist audiences.
In the
Chinese version, Mulan’s father is portrayed as visibly older and in poorer
health. Her mother assists him in walking as they approach a house where a
psychic woman appears, seemingly capable of foreseeing Hua Mulan’s destiny. The
scene includes a turtle, manipulated by the psychic woman, which symbolizes
Mulan’s connection to her future journey.
The psychic
makes predictions about Hua Mulan's future life, leaving her parents worried as
they depart. Her father speaks with her mother, who comforts him. Shortly
after, her parents discover Mulan engaged in a fight with a boy. Her father
warns her of punishment, but their interaction is interrupted by the arrival of
the Emperor of Wei's messenger, summoning him to war.
In the
following dialogue, Mulan's father explains to her mother that he must go to
war because their country has been invaded, and as a military advisor, it is
his duty. Despite his poor health, he tells her that if he does not return, she
must find a suitable family for Mulan. He adds, “From now on, do not let her
use guns anymore.”
These
introductory moments in the films are emblematic, helping us understand how
families are represented. In the United States version, the central objective
revolves around family values. Despite the external demand (the emperor's
summons), the dinner table dialogue highlights the father’s moral duty to go to
war. Simultaneously, he insists that Mulan must recognize her place as a
daughter and a woman. His authority is depicted through physical actions, such
as punching the table, intimidating gazes, and abruptly leaving the room,
signaling the end of the discussion.
In the
Chinese version, family relationships still revolve around the authority of the
father figure, with Mulan's mother portrayed as subordinate to her husband. Her
mother helps him walk, reflecting his frail health. However, the father’s
aggressive behavior in this version is not tied to gender dynamics as it is in
the United States version, but rather to a specific incident where Mulan fights
a boy in the village. While in the Disney film, the father’s behavior is tied
to a moral obligation and dramatized as a key plot point, in the Chinese
version, his reaction is less significant in the narrative. Both families
exhibit similar dynamics but are portrayed through contrasting cultural lenses.
At this
juncture, a distinction arises between Confucian filial piety, intrinsic to the
traditional Hua Mulan story, and the values of a Western Judeo-Christian
family. In the Western model, the father often asserts authority through force
and the fulfillment of family obligations. Conversely, in the Confucian ideal,
strength is derived from socially defined dominant roles for men, grounded in a
broader societal ideal.
In the
Chinese version, gender dynamics within the family remain implicit. The power
dynamics tied to gender are present but less overt than in the Western
interpretation. Notably, this discussion focuses on how family relationships
are portrayed in films, rather than actual dynamics in real-life
Judeo-Christian or Confucian families, which are undoubtedly more complex.
In the
Chinese version, the father’s statement about arranging a family for Mulan if
he does not return demonstrates concern for her well-being rather than a desire
to avoid social criticism. This aligns with Confucian values, where the
father’s role as head of the family emphasizes care and relational harmony
rather than physical or emotional dominance. By contrast, in the Disney
version, family power dynamics are conveyed through aggressive actions by the
father figure. For instance, he slams the table and raises his voice to assert
his authority, emphasizing a patriarchal model of dominance and control often
associated with Judeo-Christian traditions. However, this portrayal does not
idealize the father’s role as a social model, but instead positions it as a
conservative element that Mulan must confront.
The central
question here is why there is an insistence on incorporating subtle elements of
a conservative Western family to represent a Chinese family. This approach is
puzzling, considering the importance of family in Confucian terms within the
story and Chinese society itself.
To address
this question, parallels can be drawn with Edward W. Said’s
“Orientalist generalizations about the Arabs
are very detailed when it comes to itemizing Arab characteristics critically,
far less so when it comes to analyzing Arab strengths. The Arab family, Arab
rhetoric, the Arab character, despite copious descriptions by the Orientalist,
appear de-natured, without human potency, even as these same descriptions
possess a fullness and depth in their sweeping power over the subject matter.”
Said’s
argument about overly critical portrayals of Arab characteristics resonates
with how families are depicted in the two Mulan films. The United States
version constructs a traditional and conservative family aligned with
Judeo-Christian values, framing it within a gender debate reflective of
contemporary Western issues. This could serve two purposes: first, to connect
with Western audiences, and second, to downplay distinct Confucian family
dynamics. This generalization universalizes the gender debate using Western
terms, consequently erasing significant cultural nuances.
In summary,
while numerous other elements could provide further insights into the
disparities between the two versions, the analysis based on Edward Said's
concept of Orientalism reveals how representations of the East and the “Other”
are shaped by stereotypes and preconceived notions, even when superficially
similar elements are activated.
When
considering Stuart Hall’s definition of stereotypes, it becomes evident that
maintaining a specific view of the “Other” stems not from ignorance but from
the perpetuation of a power dynamic. Stereotypes uphold this dynamic by
naturalizing inferiorizing traits, particularly through the attribution of
immutability to characteristics deemed “natural.” As Hall states, “Stereotyping
reduces people to a few, simple, essential characteristics, which are
represented as fixed by Nature”
Moreover,
stereotyping is not merely a process of simplification but also a mechanism of
exclusion that sustains social and symbolic orders. Hall further explains: “Stereotyping,
in other words, is part of the maintenance of social and symbolic order. It
sets up a symbolic frontier between the ‘normal’ and the ‘deviant’, the ‘normal’
and the ‘pathological’, the ‘acceptable’ and the ‘unacceptable’, what ‘belongs’
and what does not or is ‘Other’”
Both films,
despite their similarities, demonstrate how the concept of Orientalism can
still be employed to analyze non-Western countries. At the same time, they
underscore the influence of the Western worldview on cinematic narratives. Even
when the storyline involves other countries and specific cultural elements,
these are often overshadowed by the imposition of a dominant perspective on the
“Other,” dictating the narrative while disregarding authentic perspectives from
the native culture.
Such
representations, anchored in a multi-million-dollar film industry with vast
distribution networks, perpetuate narratives of modernity and progress. These
narratives reinforce power dynamics while marginalizing the “Other’s”
interpretation of their own identity.
Findings and Discussion
The
comparative analysis of the two versions of Hua Mulan demonstrates how
Orientalism manifests in various aspects of US productions. This influence is
evident in the representation of scenes and characters, including visual and
cultural elements, as well as nuances in the script and performances. The
existence of stereotypes, the oversimplification of Chinese culture, and the
omission of relevant historical aspects that provide context for the time
period in which the story is set, are fundamental characteristics of the
Western perspective in the interpretation of the character and her trajectory.
In the
Disney film, there is a clear cultural simplification and an emphasis on
stereotypes about the Chinese. This is evident through the portrayal of
elements of magic associated with martial arts, decontextualized costumes, and
exaggerated makeup. These examples demonstrate the continued presence of
simplified and stereotypical representations of Chinese culture in Western
cinema. Furthermore, the approach to gender issues follows the patterns of a
Western interpretation, shifting the focus from discussions on nationality and
familial affection to individual identity.
The
emphasis on individualism aligns with Western views of individual heroism,
disregarding elements that highlight the importance of collective action in
addressing the central conflict. Additionally, the political landscape of China
is simplified; the story unfolds in a setting resembling the country’s
contemporary model, replacing the historical Wei Empire. These elements in the
version produced in the United States contribute to a Westernized portrayal of
China and the subjectivity of its population, particularly regarding their
relationship with the State and the nation.
In
contrast, Matchless Mulan seeks a closer and more contextualized
representation of Chinese culture, distancing itself from the Westernized view
of the East. The film addresses gender issues in a more subtle manner,
emphasizing collective values in the latter half of the narrative. The Chinese
version portrays Hua Mulan’s transformation in her perspective on collective
responsibility throughout the story. Initially motivated by family concerns,
she ultimately realizes that focusing solely on her family does not address the
broader issue of war. Instead, the resolution requires the active participation
of all individuals in the country to ensure the well-being of families and
their members. Moreover, this version maintains a more faithful representation
of the historical context, referencing the Wei Empire.
Another
significant aspect to consider is the challenge of accessing information about
the Chinese adaptations of Hua Mulan, especially those released in 2020.
Initial searches on platforms like Bing.com and Google.com yielded an
overwhelming amount of information about Disney’s 2020 version. Most results
directed users to cinema blogs containing critical analyses, trailers, and
YouTube clips of the Disney film.
A standard
search, similar to that conducted for the United States version, failed to
uncover relevant information about the Chinese films, including technical
specifications and synopses. Such information was only found through searches
conducted in Mandarin Chinese. Additionally, some websites with the “.cn”
extension were flagged as security risks by the browser (Edge Beta), further
complicating the search process. These issues with accessing information align
with the findings of Araujo and Albuquerque
All films
were eventually located on YouTube, with the Chinese version found on the
channel of a Chinese film distributor, 奇大影 (IQiyi Movie Theater). However, it was
unclear whether the channel was official or unofficial. The existence of
Chinese versions of Hua Mulan, produced in the same year as the Disney version,
was only confirmed after discovering the aforementioned portal. After finding
these films, I began searching for the names of directors and main actors to gather
additional information about their works. At this point, a peculiar challenge
emerged: in some versions, the main actresses shared the same surname (Lin),
further complicating the search results, which were already dominated by
information about the Disney version.
Although
such challenges do not necessarily indicate deliberate information blocking,
they underscore the relevance of access to information in shaping perceptions.
The way search engines prioritize and present results influences how we
interpret the significance of a subject within a given social context. During
my search for the Chinese adaptations, I was surprised to discover multiple new
versions of Hua Mulan produced in 2020.
Conclusion
This
article applied Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism to compare two versions of
the Hua Mulan films, demonstrating how stereotypes and preconceived ideas shape
the portrayal of the “Other” in both Western and Chinese productions. The
comparative analysis reveals that, while both films reflect contextual biases,
the version produced in the United States reinforces longstanding orientalist
tropes by emphasizing individualism and exoticized representations. In
contrast, the Chinese version attempts to provide a more nuanced and
historically grounded portrayal, prioritizing collectivism and cultural
specificity.
The
originality of this research lies in its application of Said's framework to
contemporary cinematic representations, incorporating insights from cultural
studies to explore how Orientalism persists in popular culture through specific
cinematic tropes, such as martial arts and depictions of gender dynamics. The
analysis contributes to existing debates by illustrating how cinematic
narratives are shaped by power dynamics: Western productions, like Disney's Mulan,
reinforce stereotypes that align with broader geopolitical interests, while
Chinese productions, such as Matchless Mulan, actively construct
self-representations that challenge these external perspectives.
Ultimately,
this analysis not only sheds light on the specific case of Hua Mulan, but also
underscores the broader implications of how Orientalism continues to shape
global perceptions of non-Western cultures. The wide-reaching influence of the
United States film industry perpetuates simplified and often distorted images
of other societies. By critically examining both films, this study emphasizes
the importance of engaging with cultural representations to unpack the
narratives they create about the “Other” and the power structures they sustain.
[1] 气 (qì) is a fundamental principle in Traditional Chinese Medicine, recognized by the World Health Organization since the 1990s as part of its International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
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